The Fragrant Bridge: The Islamic Golden Age & the Genesis of Modern Perfumery (Part I)

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Coming from the Gulf, I’ve been exposed to perfume, incense, and all sorts of fragrant products for as long as I can remember. It is not an exaggeration to say that, in this part of the world, fragrance is so deeply ingrained, its use is practically instinctual.  From layering oils, lotions, and sprays to scenting your clothing and hair with burning oud chips, fragrance permeates every aspect of daily life without exception.

During my brief studies at ISIPCA, our first class was the History of Perfume. While Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt were briefly mentioned, the focus quickly shifted to the European experience. I don't fault them, of course; this specific course was centered on French perfumery. The omission did, however, spark an interest in me to learn about the history of fragrance in my part of the world and in my culture. Because scent was so ubiquitous, I don’t recall ever thinking twice about its how, when, and why; it was just another fact of life. So, today, I’ve decided to share what I’ve discovered about the role of Islamic civilization in the development of modern perfumery.

Early Beginnings

The earliest documented use of perfume appears in ancient Mesopotamia, where archeological records point to the production of perfumed oils and aromatic waters as early as the 5th millennium BCE. In what is now modern-day Iraq and parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran, rudimentary distillation was used to create fragrant salves. Clay stills and perfumery equipment found at Akkadian and Sumerian sites are corroborated by Cuneiform texts, which reveal the use of resins, flowers, and aromatic herbs for ritual, religious, and cosmetic purposes. The palace archives of Nineveh even house tablets with preserved recipes for aromatic preparations.



The Ancient Egyptians were also pioneers in the art of perfumery, burning resins and developing fat-based extraction methods like enfleurage and maceration to capture the essence of lilies, lotus, myrrh, frankincense, and imported spices. Their scented oils, ointments, and incense weren't just for personal adornment and social prestige; they played a central role in sacred ceremonies and embalming rituals. 


The intrinsic value of aromatics was not lost on the Persians or the civilizations of the Indus Valley either. Fragrance was integrated into their daily lives and spiritual practices, laying the foundational understanding of aromatic materials. Mentions of fragrance are even present in Vedic literature from around 1500 BCE, noting its use in ritual offerings and Ayurvedic therapy to purify the spirit and enhance the mood.


What surprised me most, however, was the rich history of perfume in ancient Arabia, predating the rise of Islam. Like their neighbors who heavily influenced their practices, Arabs were recognized as experts in the creation of fragrance, leveraging the aromatic properties of plants and resins from the dawn of time. Much as it continues to be the case today, fragrance was woven into the very fabric of Arabian society. It was a fundamental part of daily life, from myths and ceremonies to medicine and cosmetics.



Tribes burned myrrh to invoke their gods, perfumed sacred idols, and carried frankincense to temples as offerings, marking a long and storied past of ritualistic use. Fragrance was also an indicator of status and a fundamental component of Arabian hospitality. Guests were welcomed with plumes of thick, fragrant smoke rising from burners filled with oud chips or bakhoor and were gifted perfumed oils.


Given its strategic location at the crossroads of ancient civilizations, the Arabian Peninsula served as a hub for perfumery long before the advent of Islam. Research indicates the peninsula occupied a central role in the global fragrance trade as early as the 3rd millennium BCE. South Arabia’s "Incense Route" ferried precious frankincense and myrrh—aromatics central to Egyptian, Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian rituals—across arid deserts to far-flung corners of the world.


Caravans and merchant fleets transformed the region into a bustling hub where Indian cardamom, East African cinnamon, and Southeast Asian clove mingled in bustling marketplaces like Mombasa, Dumat Al Jandal, Mushaqqar, San’a, and Ukaz. As a result, Arab traders became famed suppliers to the imperial courts of Rome, Byzantium, and Sassanid Persia. 


This pervasive and deeply embedded cultural integration of fragrance in pre-Islamic Arabia created the ideal foundation for the widespread adoption, spiritual endorsement, and scientific development that followed with the rise of Islam. A natural synergy with the emerging Islamic emphasis on physical and spiritual cleanliness meant the radical advancement perfumery was about to undergo was a logical and highly-encouraged development.

The Advent of Islam

With the rise of Islam in the 7th century, the role of fragrance was fundamentally transformed. Scent became a spiritual mandate, a symbolic reminder to keep actions and surroundings pure. The Holy Quran and the sayings of the Prophet Mohammed PBUH (Haddith) linked physical purity to spiritual worth:


“Indeed, Allah loves those who purify themselves.”
(The Holy Quran, 2:222)

Aligning perfectly with the Islamic teaching of cleanliness (Taharah), scent is even governed by Islamic Law, which prescribes specific guidelines for its use. Men are encouraged to use strong scents with subtle or “hidden colour”—like musks and oud—while women are advised to use scents with “visible colour” and subtle scent, such as florals, to avoid attracting unwanted attention and to maintain modesty. The debate over alcohol-based perfumes among religious scholars is ongoing, giving rise to the Halal perfume industry.


While Islamic tradition acknowledges the sensory delight of perfumes, scent is also very much a means of spiritual refinement. The Prophet's (PBUH) own fondness for scent, particularly ambergris and musk, became a part of Prophetic Tradition (Sunnah), emulated by men and women alike, bolstering the social and religious prestige of attars. Fragrance also became a prominent part of religious practice, applied after ablution before prayer as an act of worship, applied generously before Friday prayers, and as a fixture of religious celebrations. Cleanliness of body, attire, and space became integral to worship and a fundamental component of social piety with incense like bakhoor or oud chips frequently burned in mosques and homes throughout Muslim communities.


This inextricable link between fragrance and worship created an immense and consistent demand for perfume across all social strata. It gave rise to a widespread and sustained market that served as a powerful economic engine and incentive for Islamic scholars and artisans to seek out cheaper, more efficient ways to meet it. This would be the fuel that propelled the scientific inquiry and technological advancements in chemistry and botany that characterized the Islamic Golden Age, transforming perfumery from an artisanal craft into a sophisticated science.


Stay tuned for part two next week, where we will dive into the advancements of the Islamic Golden Age and their lasting impact on modern perfumery!



References & Further Reading:

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